Which political entities began to replace small kingdoms and multiethnic empires in Europe?

The emergence of nation-states marked a significant shift in European political organization, moving away from the fragmented small kingdoms and multiethnic empires that had dominated the landscape for centuries. Nation-states are defined by a shared sense of identity among a large population, often based on common language, culture, and history, and unified under a central government. This shift began to crystallize during the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, with the formation of larger, consolidated political entities such as France and England. These nation-states had distinct boundaries and a growing sense of nationalism, which fostered loyalty to the state rather than to local lords or kings alone. The consolidation of political power also allowed for more effective governance, military organization, and the ability to engage in expansive trade, all characteristics that defined the modern nation-state.

This transition contributed to increased centralization of power and the decline of the feudal system, where local lords held significant power over their vassals. The rise of colonies, while linked to nation-states later on, was not a direct replacement of traditional European governance structures. Similarly, city-states, which existed primarily in the Italian peninsula or as isolated urban centers, did not represent a broader political trend across Europe